The “Rainbow Bridge” in Inner Mongolia

Osordorj Nyamsteren with his friend Yu Young at Solongo restaurant. 

Hundreds of Mongolian independent merchants, the survivors of the collapsed socialist era, patiently waited in a seemingly endless line of Russian GAZ-69 cars at the Zamiin Ude border. Among those heading to the small village of Erlian in Inner Mongolia to restock their markets was Osordorj Nyamtseren, a bold visionary who had recently left his job as a driver in pursuit of fabric trading. At the time, he was completely unaware that his vision would eventually lead to the flourishing of the first authentic Mongolian restaurant, expanding to five branches in Erlian. He also didn’t know he would establish various business brokerage services between Chinese and Mongolian people, open a kindergarten, and plant the seeds for a growing line of Mongolian stores in that small intersection of the two neighboring countries. 

Nyamtseren’s journey began with the reopening of the Chinese-Mongolian border, ending Inner Mongolia’s 40 years of isolation. “The 1990s was a big time for Mongolians. To combat the financial crisis caused by the shift from socialism to democracy, a big wave of people ventured to China,” he recalled. 

Five years prior, he received heartbreaking news. Nyamtseren’s father had died, and he learned of it through a military phone. This loss made him an orphan just before society transformed dramatically. The relentless changes of the era pushed him to be on his own, which felt overwhelming to a 25-year-old. However, he wasn’t entirely alone. His high school sweetheart, Tungalag Jambal, who had married him shortly after his return from the military and his father’s passing, was by his side.

After losing his driver’s job to democracy, Nyamtseren proposed the idea of importing silk and fabric from China to his wife. When that business slowed, the couple used the leftover fabric to open a tailor shop, relying on Jambal’s sewing skills. “Then again, there he was presenting his big idea of opening a restaurant in Erlian,” said Jambal. “Quickly adapting to changes, he is truly a business-minded man.”

 Nyamtseren with his wife Jambal Tungalag

Their 13-year fabric trading began in the deserted city of Erlian, which took 1-3 days to reach from Ulaanbaatar. For larger cities like Beijing, Dalian, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Hangzhou, their trips extended to 10–14 days. During these prolonged periods of travel, Nyamtseren observed fatigue among fellow merchants, particularly their struggles with surviving Chinese food during their continuous trips.

“The heavy seasoning, the abundance of spices, and the emphasis on leafy greens left few appealing options for Mongolians,” Nyamtseren explained. The full-time merchants grew weary of the repetitive meals, as they preferred plain, meat-centric dishes that suited Mongolian dietary practices. “We live and breathe meat,” he said with a chuckle.

Reflecting on the situation in 2003, he built the first rainbow bridge, a Mongolian restaurant named after his daughter, Solongo, which means “Rainbow.” He strategically chose Erlian as the location, a city that evolved from a deserted area with 50,000 residents into the largest marketplace for Mongolians within a decade. With only one border crossing into China by train and car, this small intersection became a bustling hub. He envisioned the aroma of his food drawing every merchant and traveler directly from the borders to the doors of Solongo. 

His vision came to life as the two-story restaurant with 12 tables became a remarkable success from the very first day. In just a month, long lines of customers waiting outside became a common sight. They were drawn to the restaurant, where the name “Solongo” was proudly displayed in Mongolian, Inner Mongolian, and Chinese. Not only did it become a comforting haven for merchants constantly on the move, but it also attracted Inner Mongolian and Chinese residents, fostering a vibrant community. 

Nyamtseren saw this cultural hub he created as an excellent opportunity to start a new service, acting as a broker between Chinese and Mongolian businesses. “That rascal is a sharp-witted guy. He picked up basic Chinese from me and practiced it through constant interactions with others, eventually using it for his brokerage services,” said Yu Young, a Chinese friend Nyamtseren met during his merchant days. 

Over the years, the restaurant branched out to five additional locations. The constant flow of customers showed that the menu crafted by his wife, a food technologist, was perfect for satisfying the tired travelers from beyond the border. However, as the restaurant expanded, Nyamtseren encountered a logistical challenge: he struggled to retain enough full-time workers willing to stay away from home as most of them were couples with children. Therefore, with sufficient savings, he courageously established a kindergarten in 2012. This provided a solution for their workers and Inner Mongolian parents, who wanted their children to stay connected to their cultural roots. The kindergarten started with one class of 20–25 students, two teachers, and one cook. 

In this way, Nyamtseren transformed Solongo restaurant into Solongo Solutions LLC, which operated smoothly with a steady income until the COVID-19 pandemic broke out in 2020. After two years of quarantine in Ulaanbaatar, he returned to the main restaurant to revive the business and eventually retire, passing the company to his second daughter, Bolormaa Nyamtseren. 

“Stepping into the abandoned space of my restaurant, covered in dust and clutter from our apartments, I feared we would struggle to get back on our feet and attract the same number of customers we used to,” said Nyamtseren. 

With the growing trend in Mongolia of store owners restocking their markets through online shops like Taobao, he worried that the demand for his restaurant might no longer exist. Despite this uncertainty, he reopened the restaurant within two weeks with his initial team: his daughter Bolormaa, the future owner, two main chiefs, one line cook, and one waitress. 

“It reminded me of how I started it all with my wife. However, this time I had connections all over Erlian, and it was easier than I imagined,” he said calmly. 

Now in 2024, thousands of Mongolians still form long lines at the Zamiin Ude border to enter Erlian. Among them are merchants who prefer working with their familiar stores in the Erlian market and travelers passing through on low-budget buses to Beijing, Shanghai, and Hohhot. The old Russian GAZ-69 cars have been replaced by Prius-31s, and conversations about the financial crisis have shifted to stopping by Solongo as soon as they cross the border. Solongo LLC is now successfully operating with two main branches, tourism and brokerage services, without the kindergarten. 

Reflecting on his journey, Nyamtseren emphasized that he never imagined he would establish these businesses amidst the transitions and changes of our constantly evolving society. One day you wake up and lose your job as society collapses. Another day, you wake up to a pandemic outbreak and have to abandon your business. “But that is how life is, and as messy as it is, it also gives abundant opportunities just if you can find them,” concluded Nyamtseren.

Echoes of the Steppe: The Global Resonance of Mongolia’s Hunnu Rock Revolution

When tourists explore the “land of the blue sky,” they immerse themselves in the nomadic lifestyle. They visit livestock herders and witness shamanic dances, reflecting the locals' deep respect for nature. (Whitener, 2017, p.14). Ascending the equestrian statue of Genghis Khan, they lend their ears to the whispering winds of the steppe. From this elevated perspective, gazing upon the boundless expanse of untamed nature, they realize they are indeed in Mongolia. In this very land of nomads, interestingly, a novel mode of exploration has emerged: the pulsating rhythms of Hunnu rock music. Through its unique blend of modern and traditional musical components, this music genre brings listeners directly to the Mongolian steppes. Hence, visiting Mongolia through these mere metal rhythms leads to a fascinating question. How has ‘hunnu rock’ affected the globalization of music, given its historical and social significance? This essay argues that the ‘hunnu rock’ significantly contributed to music globalization. This contribution is evident in its blend of Mongolian folk and Western metal, its worldwide recognition amplified by the accomplishments of bands such as The HU, and its symbolic representation of artistic expression in Mongolia’s post-communist era. 

The Intersection of East and West, Past and Present

Hunnu rock combines traditional Mongolian instrumentation and throat singing with Western heavy metal, creating a unique fusion of the East and the West. This blend of musical styles and traditions has introduced audiences worldwide to the rich cultural heritage of Mongolia. Simultaneously, it also demonstrates the potential for cross-cultural collaboration and innovation in music. Therefore, this exploration commences with a comprehensive analysis of the distinct elements of Mongolian traditional music, the characteristics of hard rock, and their intriguing combination.

The Mongolian nomads have a rich cultural heritage deeply intertwined with their reverence for horses and music. Traditional Mongolian music, particularly the Hunnu rock genre, features instruments like the morin khuur (horse-head fiddle), tovshuur, and throat singing. 

The horse-head fiddle, as documented in 13th and 14th-century Mongol empire sources, holds a significant place in their culture. This deep-rooted respect for horses extends beyond their use for travel. When a horse passed away, its head was honored by placing it on a mountain peak, avoiding the perceived disrespect of burial. The horse’s tail was preserved to create strings for their cherished musical instruments, including the horse-head fiddle (Barsbold, 2017, para.3).

The distinctive sound of the instrument is achieved by “gliding or brushing the bow across the two strings” (UNESCO, 2008, para.1). Until now, the horse-head fiddle stands as a profound symbol of the enduring bond between Mongolian nomads and their horses, a relationship that has thrived over centuries.

Furthermore, the tovshuur, often likened to “a two-stringed banjo or lute-like string instrument” is widespread among ethnic groups residing in the mountains of western Mongolia (Whitener, 2017, p.19). Historical accounts, including those by Marco Polo, mention the Mongols playing this instrument before going into battle, suggesting that a version of the tovshuur was likely in use during Genghis Khan’s era. This rich history is embodied in the instrument’s construction. The instrument’s main body, generally round and bowl-like, is covered tightly with animal skin to create the main resonator. The strings are crafted from the hair of common regional animals, such as “sheep, horses, or even yaks,” further underscoring the powerful attachment between the instrument and its natural surroundings (Whitener, 2017, p.20). Thus, the tovshuur is not just an instrument, but a symbol of the region’s history and ecology.   

Lastly, throat singing is a traditional style of singing believed to mimic the sounds of nature such as the flow of a river or mountain echoes. It involves using various combinations to control the “resonating chambers of the vocal tract,” all while maintaining a steady, “pressurized airflow from the stomach and chest” (Pegg, 2015, para.2). Similar to the art of opera singing, mastering this technique demands several years of practice. Moreover, the raw and powerful sound of throat singing can match the intensity and energy of hard rock and heavy metal music. 

In a parallel vein, heavy metal has found an unexpected yet harmonious blend with the sounds of traditional Mongolian instruments. Heavy metal, a genre characterized by its intense electric guitar distortions, emerged predominantly in the United States and the United Kingdom during the late 1960s (Havers, 2023, para.1). The horse-head fiddle, for instance, produces a rich and haunting sound that oscillates between deep, resonant lows and bright, sharp highs. In contrast, the tovshuur generates a warm, resonant, and earthy sound. These two instruments, each unique in their acoustic qualities, add a distinctive layer to the heavy metal soundscape, enriching its overall sonic texture and complexity. Complementing this fusion is throat singing, renowned for its deep and resonant tones, which serves to heighten the emotional intensity inherent in heavy metal music.

This harmonious meeting of different times and cultures not only enhances the richness of the music but also symbolizes the limitless possibilities of musical exploration and innovation. It’s a testament to how music can transcend boundaries, connecting us to our past while propelling us into the future. This fusion, therefore, represents more than just a combination of sounds; it’s a dialogue between history and the present, tradition and innovation, the East and the West. It’s the sound of a world where the past is not forgotten but reimagined and retold in the language of the contemporary.

The “Mongol Nomadization” on Global Music Stages

Building on this fusion, we witness the phenomenon of “Mongol Nomadization” on global music stages. As the production and popularity of heavy metal music become more worldwide, Western fans have started to seek out international bands and fresh, exciting sounds. Concurrently, non-Western metal bands have either embraced the standards and ethos of heavy metal or forged their own distinctive sounds, such as Hunnu rock (Spracklen, 2018, p.62). This global recognition of Hunnu rock has been significantly amplified by the accomplishments of bands such as The HU.

The HU, a band whose name translates to “human” in Mongolian, has made a significant impact on the global music scene, demonstrating the far-reaching appeal of Hunnu rock. Their debut album, “The Gereg”, topped the World Album and Top New Artist Charts, and their music videos, showcasing Mongolia’s stunning landscapes, have amassed over 250 million combined streams and views. They’ve sold out concerts worldwide and are set to appear at major festivals like Coachella, Lollapalooza, and Download Festival. Their praised Mongolian rendition of Metallica’s ‘Sad But True’ led to their inclusion in Metallica’s 2021 Blacklist album alongside other high-profile artists, attesting to their worldwide acclaim (The HU Official, 2024, para.3).

Moreover, their influence extends beyond music. They are vocal advocates for gender equality, diversity, environmental protection, and linguistic diversity, often incorporating endangered dialects into their songs (UNESCO, 2022, para.1). This commitment to positive change has earned them the title of ‘Artist For Peace’ by UNESCO, cementing their status as not just musicians but cultural ambassadors for Mongolia (Singer, 2022, para.1). This aligns with the insights shared by Peter K. Marsh, an expert in Asian music and culture. He emphasizes that it is not just the fusion of Western heavy metal and Mongolian folk music that captivates audiences, but also the authenticity of The HU’s music. It reflects their identities and experiences as young Mongolian men in today’s world, making their music feel original and deeply resonant (Baljmaa, 2020, para.6).  Therefore, the emergence of Hunnu rock, as exemplified by The HU, is a testament to the increasing interconnectivity of the music world. The band’s meteoric rise to fame, their commitment to social causes, and their role as cultural representatives of Mongolia further underscore the transformative power of this genre.

Rising from the Silence: The Hunnu Rock Rebellion

Expanding on the theme of transformative power, it is important to note that during Mongolia’s communist period, various types of music, including Western styles such as jazz and rock, and even traditional Mongolian music were banned (Farber, 2019, para.5). Thus, the emergence of hunnu rock represents a form of cultural and artistic liberation, showing how music can serve as a vehicle for social change and freedom of expression. This has resonated with audiences worldwide despite its lyrics in a different language and traditional elements, contributing to the globalization of music by highlighting the power of music to transcend social and political boundaries. 

Following the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Mongolia underwent a peaceful shift from being a USSR satellite to becoming “a democratic nation with a free-market economy in 1990” (Dovchin, 2011, p.1). The leaders of communist Mongolia stepped down without resistance, marking the conclusion of the 70-year-long communist rule in Mongolia. From that point forward, Mongolia has embraced openness, allowing external influences to rapidly permeate throughout the country (Dovchin, 2011, p.1). However, the world they entered was not diverse, as Philipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (1996, p.439) argue that “we live in a world characterized by Americanization and homogenization of world culture, spearheaded by films, pop culture, CNN, fast-food chains, and McDonaldization.” From this angle, the present mass media, which is dominated by Western and English-language content, could be criticized for exhibiting cultural and linguistic imperialism. 

 Interestingly, despite the heavy influence of Western practices during the early democracy, young Mongolian musicians were beginning to engage with the global music scene. They were responding to their nation’s popular music scene in ways that are rich with fresh ideas about what it means to be young and Mongolian in 1990s Mongolia. Hip-hop, for instance, was not merely an imitation or derivative of Western popular music. Instead, it has been skillfully appropriated by Mongolia’s media-savvy youth and adapted to the specific conditions of their local context in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (Dovchin, 2011, p.7). Furthermore, as an ongoing practice of this musical experimentation, the first Hunnu rock band Altan Urag “was formed in 2002 by seven recent graduates of the Mongolian Music and Dance College” (Heins, 2011, p.13). From that point forward, the hunnu rock genre has resonated far and wide, igniting the passion of thousands of Mongolian traditional and hard rock music enthusiasts, and even those who are in China and Inner Mongolia.

For example, Tengger Cavalry, a band based in Beijing in 2010, adeptly incorporates Mongolian traditional music instruments and throat singing into their repertoire, producing Hunnu rock music that surpasses their Chinese roots. A photograph on the band’s official website even depicts the band members adorned in traditional Mongolian attire, reminiscent of the Mongol warriors and shamans from the past (Spracklen, 2018, p.69). Furthermore, the fact that the lead guitarist, drummer, and bass guitarist of the band are American underscores the global reach of music. It demonstrates how individuals from different cultural backgrounds can engage with and contribute to Mongolian traditional music, further emphasizing music globalization. 

Accordingly, the global resonance of Hunnu rock is a compelling illustration of music’s capacity to inspire and unite. Despite originating from a country with a history of cultural and political restrictions, it has managed to captivate audiences around the world. This narrative highlights the significant role music can play in fostering global unity and cultural dialogue.

The Unheard Melodies Amidst the Hunnu Rock Surge

However, there are also concerns about the potential overshadowing of other forms of authentic Mongolian traditional music due to the global dominance of Hunnu rock. Some fear that the commercial success of ‘hunnu rock’ might lead to the neglect of lesser-known but equally significant traditional genres of music. Advocates for the preservation of diverse musical heritage argue that the overwhelming popularity of ‘hunnu rock’ could contribute to the homogenization of Mongolian music in the global imagination, potentially eroding the rich tapestry of Mongolian musical traditions. 

A recent manifestation of this concern is evident in the reactions to Enkh-Erdene, a Mongolian artist who showcased his country-style singing on America’s Got Talent. Despite his lack of English proficiency, he left both the audience and judges astounded with his Southern drawl (Jidoun, 2024, para.2). His distinctive style led to a flurry of reaction videos on YouTube. One such YouTuber, Lyle, expressed his astonishment, saying, “I thought we were going to get Mongolian throat singing, like The HU. I did not expect country Western to come out of that man’s mouth” (Lyle, 2024, 6:33).

Many argue that this reaction speaks to the potential for a narrow view of Mongolian music. However, the fact that Lyle expected throat singing but was surprised by country-style singing indicates that audiences are recognizing, not homogenizing, the diversity of Mongolian music. The ability of Enkh-Erdene, a Mongolian artist, to perform on an international platform like America’s Got Talent underscores the diversity and versatility of Mongolian artists, challenging the notion of homogenization and instead highlighting the broad spectrum of musical styles that Mongolian artists can master. For instance, Hunnu rock is now not the only music genre that combines traditional and contemporary elements. Bands like NaraBara, an Inner Mongolian band, are experimenting with Mongolian traditional folk music and the soothing rhythms of jazz, further enriching the Mongolian music scene.

In conclusion, it is clear that Hunnu rock, a genre born in Mongolia, has played a pivotal role in the internationalization of music. This genre, with its unique blend of traditional Mongolian elements and modern rock, has not only introduced the world to the rich cultural heritage of Mongolia but also showcased the potential for innovation when cultures intersect. Despite the concerns about the overshadowing of other traditional Mongolian music forms, the global embrace of Hunnu rock and artists like The HU and Tengger Cavalry has demonstrated that audiences worldwide can appreciate Mongolian music. The emergence of bands like NaraBara, who are experimenting with traditional folk music and jazz rhythms, further highlights this diversity. As we look to the future, it is essential to continue exploring and celebrating the rich tapestry of Mongolian musical traditions, ensuring that the echoes of the steppe continue to resonate on the global stage. 

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